Do we have a body, soul, and spirit? Are we made of two parts or three? Dichotomy or trichotomy?

WHAT DOES THE BIBLE SAY?

Whether humans are made up of two parts (body and soul) or three (body, soul, or spirit) is debated. While it is clear that humans have a body, what is questioned is whether references to “spirit” and “soul” are references to the same intangible part, or to two distinct intangible parts. While the Bible doesn’t define people in strict, technical terms, it clearly affirms that humans have both physical and nonphysical aspects (Genesis 2:7; Matthew 10:28). While some passages appear to treat “soul” and “spirit” as distinct (Hebrews 4:12; 1 Thessalonians 5:23), a closer examination shows these may be rhetorical expressions rather than technical definitions.

Note that the language of Scripture often overlaps when describing the inner person (e.g., Luke 1:46–47) and sometimes uses “soul” and “spirit” interchangeably (Genesis 7:22; Ecclesiastes 12:7). Jesus and Paul used such words to refer to the whole person (Mark 12:30), not for the purpose of dividing humans into discrete components. Therefore, while trichotomy cannot be ruled out completely, the dichotomist view better fits the broader usage in both the Old and New Testaments. Regardless of the model, Scripture emphasizes that our entire being must be aligned with God (Deuteronomy 6:5; Romans 12:1–2; Matthew 22:37).

FROM THE OLD TESTAMENT

• The first time that we learn about the human soul is in Genesis 2. It reads, “then the LORD God formed the man of dust from the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living creature” (Genesis 2:7). The word “creature” in that ESV translation is the Hebrew word nephesh, which is often translated as breath, life, or soul. Note that other translations translate Genesis 2:7 as “living soul” (KJV) and “living being” (NRSV). Because God is directly involved in breathing life into mankind, there is something special about the intangible part of men and women that is not found in the rest of creation. It is that intangible part which we call the soul.
• But trichotomists believe God’s breath is the spirit in contrast with the nephesh. Though a different word (naphach) is used for “breathed” in Genesis 2:7, elsewhere the word “breath” is ruach and is a word that can be translated as spirit, wind, or breath. Therefore, they view the source of man’s spirit as God’s breath.
• Other places in Scripture use nephesh to refer to human life in general. For example, Leviticus 24:17 says that “Whoever takes a human life (nephesh) shall surely be put to death.” Though we learn elsewhere that the soul never dies, human life is so connected with the soul, that nephesh is “life.”
• Because our soul is who we are, Moses could say, “But from there you will seek the LORD your God and you will find him, if you search after him with all your heart and with all your soul” (Deuteronomy 4:29). In this context, “heart” does not mean the literal heart, but the whole person. Likewise, to search with “all your soul” is to seek God with everything that is in you.
• Because we are also physical—not simply souls trapped in a body, but actually body and soul together—it can be difficult to distinguish where our soul ends and where our bodies begin. However, from Scripture we derive that our intellect, will, conscience, emotions, and personalities are all within our immaterial part.
• Trichotomists believe that humans consist of three parts: body (physical), soul (mind, will, emotions), and spirit (the means through which we relate to God).
• Some passages specifically talk about man’s spirit in relationship to God. For example, Solomon poetically referred to the release of someone’s spirit after death(Ecclesiastes 12:6), saying “the spirit (ruach) returns to God who gave it” (Ecclesiastes 12:7b).
• A dichotomist, however, disagrees with that understanding because the full verse says, “and the dust returns to the earth as it was, and the spirit returns to God who gave it” (Ecclesiastes 12:7). Given the allusion to Genesis (c.f., Genesis 2:7, 3:19b) where man was formed from dust and given a soul from God, and since “soul” is not mentioned in the Ecclesiastes passage, they argue that “spirit” is simply another word for “soul.”
• In general contrast to the trichotomist view, dichotomists also point out that the words ruach and nephesh appear to be used interchangeably. For example, Genesis 7:22 says, “Everything on the dry land in whose nostrils was the breath (nephesh) of life (ruach) died.” In this case, both words are used together not as different parts, but seemingly as the same thing. Also, the word picture of Genesis 7:22 points back to Genesis 2:7. In both cases, the breath was in the nostrils and while breath brought life, its removal brought death. So, not only can they be used together as the same thing, comparing Genesis 2:7 and 7:22 shows ruach and nephesh being used apparently without distinction.

FROM THE NEW TESTAMENT

• Perhaps the key verse used by trichotomists is Hebrews 4:12, which reads, “the word of God is living and active, sharper than any two-edged sword, piercing to the division of soul and of spirit, of joints and of marrow, and discerning the thoughts and intentions of the heart.” The trichotomist argues that God’s word divides soul and spirit and, thus, they must be two parts of a person. Dichotomists would say that the author of Hebrews is figuratively talking about the depth that God’s word goes into a person to confront their sin.
• Another verse trichotomists appeal to is 1 Thessalonians 5:23, which reads, “Now may the God of peace himself sanctify you completely, and may your whole spirit and soul and body be kept blameless at the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ.” Again, the dichotomist would say this is poetic rather than literal.
• Dichotomists argue the same for passages like Luke 1:46–47, where Mary exclaims, “My soul magnifies the Lord, and my spirit rejoices in God my Savior.” Like with the Hebrews 4 passage, they argue that Paul and Mary were not intending to give a technical description of the components of a person. To illustrate that that type of repetition was common in the first century, they point to passages like Mark 12:30 where Jesus said, “you shall love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind and with all your strength.” There, Jesus is not saying that people are made up of four parts: 1) heart, 2) soul, 3) mind, and 4) strength. Instead, He was using a common rhetorical device to emphasize that one must love God with his or her entire being. This, the dichotomists argue, is that Paul was doing.
• Finally, a dichotomist will also point out that other New Testament passages clearly indicate only two parts to a person. For example, Jesus said, “do not fear those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul. Rather fear him who can destroy both soul and body in hell” (Matthew 10:28). While Jesus was also not giving a technical description of the parts of men and women, He viewed men and women's relationship with God as boiling down to two parts.
• In the end, while there is some incidental support for the trichotomist view, no clear technical statements define a person as having two intangible parts. Some passages refer to the intangible aspect with words other than soul or spirit, such as will (Romans 7:18), mind (Romans 7:23), heart (Romans 10:10), and so forth; this suggests multiple ways to refer to the one intangible part. Each word may draw out a particular feature of the intangible.

IMPLICATIONS FOR TODAY

Whenever we try to understand the intangible realm, we are always dealing with a level of uncertainty. This is particularly true when words are used but never explicitly defined in Scripture, as is the case with “soul” and “spirit.” Those who see them as two separate parts have the more difficult position of proving their position because of the other passages that refer to men and women as two parts, body and soul. However, there is enough mystery that the trichotomist view may have some merit.

In the end, what does it actually matter? Scripture’s point is that all of us—whether we are two or three parts—must be in submission to Scripture. We are either entirely saved or entirely damned.

What salvation might look like in the immaterial world may always be a mystery to us. What we do know with certainty, however, is that we have been personally created by God (Genesis 1:26–27) and are entirely responsible before Him. This means that we must submit our will (James 4:7), mind (Romans 12:2), heart, (Proverbs 35), soul (Matthrew 22:37), and spirit (Romans 8:16) to Him. It also teaches that, before salvation, we’re enslaved to sin (Romans 6:17) and unable to do good (Romans 3:10) because unbelievers don’t have the spiritual ability to understand spiritual things (1 Corinthians 2:14).

In the end, then, the distinction between soul and spirit matters little. Instead, what is important is that you repent of sin, trust in Jesus, and worship God with your entire being!

UNDERSTAND

• The Bible teaches that human beings are composed of material and immaterial parts.
• Dichotomists believe human beings are made up of body and soul, while trichotomists believe in body, soul, and spirit.
• Scripture contains more passages supporting the dichotomous view, but some passages can be read as supporting a trichotomist stance.

REFLECT

• Which perspective do you find more convincing: the dichotomous or trichotomist view?
• How might remembering that your whole being—both physical and immaterial—belongs to God change the way you live?
• Why do you think God chose not to give us a precise, technical definition of “soul” and “spirit” in Scripture?

ENGAGE

• How can Scripture best be used in discussions with others about nebulous spiritual issues?
• How can we engage others about Christ without becoming distracted by secondary issues?
• What does it practically look like to worship God with your “whole being” in community with others?