Did God work through covenants or dispensations?

from the old testament

• The Old Testament demonstrates that God's dealings with humanity develop progressively. In Genesis 1–3, God created humanity and gave Adam specific responsibilities, including tending the garden and obeying God's command concerning the tree of the knowledge of good and evil (Genesis 1:26–28; 2:15–17). After the Fall, God continued His plan despite human sin and gave promises concerning the ultimate defeat of the serpent (Genesis 3:15).
• With Noah, God established a covenant promising never again to destroy all flesh with a flood (Genesis 9:8–17). This covenant was made with Noah, his descendants, and every living creature. God was continuing His purposes for humanity even after judgment.
  
• With Abraham, God established one of the most significant covenants in Scripture. He promised Abraham land, descendants, and blessing, declaring, “in you all the families of the earth shall be blessed” (Genesis 12:1–3; cf. Genesis 15:18–21; 17:1–8). The Abrahamic Covenant is especially important for understanding dispensationalism because God's promises to Abraham are not presented as being canceled or transferred to someone else.
  
• God subsequently entered into the Mosaic Covenant with Israel at Sinai (Exodus 19–24). Israel was given the Law and a distinct national calling as God's covenant people (Exodus 19:4–6; Deuteronomy 7:6–8). The Mosaic Covenant governed Israel's national life and included blessings for obedience and consequences for disobedience (Deuteronomy 28).
  
• Later, God made the Davidic Covenant, promising David an enduring dynasty and kingdom (2 Samuel 7:12–16). This promise points forward to the Messiah, the descendant of David who will ultimately reign as King.
  
• The prophets then looked forward to a New Covenant. Jeremiah announced that God would make a new covenant with Israel and Judah, writing His law on their hearts and forgiving their sins (Jeremiah 31:31–34). Ezekiel likewise spoke of Israel's future restoration, cleansing, new heart, and the Spirit of God (Ezekiel 36:22–28; 37:21–28). This progression is significant: God did not abandon His earlier promises when He introduced something new. Instead, His plan continued moving toward its fulfillment
• Dispensational theology further divides this history into dispensations: the dispensations of innocence, conscience, human government, promise, law, grace, Millennial kingdom.
• During the dispensation of innocence, Adam and Eve lived in the Garden of Eden without sin and were given the command not to eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil (Genesis 1:26–28; 2:15–17). Their disobedience brought sin and death into the world (Genesis 3:1–24).
• After the Fall, humanity had an awareness of good and evil and was responsible to respond to God accordingly (Genesis 3:22; 4:1–16). Human wickedness eventually became widespread, leading to the judgment of the Flood (Genesis 6:5–7). This was the dispensation of conscience.
• After the Flood, God gave humanity responsibility for governing and restraining evil, including the establishment of capital punishment for murder, which is the dispensation of human government. (Genesis 8:20–22; 9:1–7). Humanity again rebelled at Babel (Genesis 11:1–9).
• In the dispensation of promise, God called Abraham and established promises concerning his descendants, land, and blessing, declaring that through Abraham all the families of the earth would be blessed (Genesis 12:1–3; 15:18–21; 17:1–8). This period centers on God's promises to Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and their descendants.
  
• In the dispensation of law, God established the Mosaic Covenant with Israel and gave Israel the Law at Mount Sinai (Exodus 19–24). Israel was given specific covenant responsibilities and was called to be God's treasured possession and a kingdom of priests (Exodus 19:4–6).
  

from the new testament

• The New Testament also shows that God's purposes unfold through different stages. Christ's coming introduced a new stage in God's program (John 1:17; Hebrews 1:1–2), the Holy Spirit's coming marked another significant development (Acts 2), and Scripture looks forward to Christ's future kingdom and ultimately the new heavens and new earth (Revelation 19–22).
• Jesus instituted the New Covenant at the Last Supper, saying, “This cup that is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood” (Luke 22:20; cf. 1 Corinthians 11:25). Hebrews explains that Christ is the mediator of this better covenant (Hebrews 8:6–13; 9:15).
• The New Covenant therefore represents a genuine new stage in God's redemptive program. Believers in Christ, both Jew and Gentile, are united in one spiritual body, the church (Ephesians 2:11–22; 1 Corinthians 12:13). Gentiles who believe in Christ become fellow members of God's household and participants in the blessings of salvation.
  But this does not mean that the church has replaced Israel.
  
• Paul directly addresses this issue in Romans 9–11. He distinguishes Israel from the Gentiles and insists that God's promises have not failed (Romans 9:1–6). Most importantly, after discussing Israel's present partial hardening, Paul says that “the gifts and the calling of God are irrevocable” (Romans 11:29). He also looks forward to Israel's future salvation (Romans 11:25–27). This is one of the major differences between dispensationalists and those who adhere to covenant theology: we believe the church participates in God's redemptive blessings through Christ without becoming a replacement for national Israel or inheriting every promise God made specifically to Israel. God's promises to Israel remain meaningful, and God still has a future purpose for Israel.
• Two dispensations are seen in the New Testament: the dispensation of grace and the dispensation of the millennial kingdom. Following Christ's death and resurrection, believers live under the New Covenant and the administration of God's grace, with the Holy Spirit indwelling believers and the gospel going to all nations (Jeremiah 31:31–34; see Luke 22:20; Acts 2; Ephesians 3:1–12). The church consists of Jews and Gentiles united in Christ (see Ephesians 2:11–22). This is known as the dispensation of grace.
• The Bible also looks forward to Christ's future earthly reign, when He will rule as King and fulfill God's purposes concerning His kingdom (Isaiah 11:1–10; Zechariah 14:1–9; see Revelation 20:1–6). This culminates in God's ultimate victory and the eternal state described in Revelation 21–22. This is the dispensation of the millennial kingdom.

implications for today

The Bible presents one unified story of redemption, but it unfolds through different stages in God's dealings with humanity. God has always been the same God, His character has never changed, and salvation has always ultimately been by His grace through faith. Yet the responsibilities, revelations, commands, and ways God administered His purposes have changed throughout history. This is the basic idea behind dispensationalism. Though there are differences in the number and the specific dispensations, most believe in seven different eras or dispensations, including 1) Innocence, 2) Conscience, 3) Human Government, 4) Promise, 5) Law, 6) Grace, and 7) the Millennial Kingdom.

At the same time, the Bible clearly shows that covenants are central to God's dealings with humanity. God made covenants with Noah (Genesis 9:8–17), Abraham (Genesis 12:1–3; 15:18–21; 17:1–14), Israel through Moses (Exodus 19–24), David (2 Samuel 7:8–16), and ultimately promised a New Covenant (Jeremiah 31:31–34). These covenants are not opposed to dispensationalism; rather, they operate within the larger unfolding of God's purposes.

The important distinction is that we should not equate dispensations with covenants. We should also understand the implications of the terminology we use. For example, a dispensation describes an administration or stewardship in God's unfolding program, while a covenant is a specific relationship or promise God establishes with people. The Bible gives us evidence for both concepts, even though neither word functions as a complete theological system within Scripture itself. Further, covenant theology is not the same as believing that God worked through covenants. Covenant theology believes that the church has replaced Israel in God's redemptive plan. This is not biblical.

Jesus was the fulfillment of every Messianic promise in the Old Testament. God's covenants with mankind continually pointed to the Savior who would one day save His people from their sin. There is no way to separate God's plans for the Jews from His purpose for the church, because they are one and the same. This should encourage us as we see how intentional and faithful God has been throughout history, working through different stages and covenants to accomplish His plan of redemption and ultimately bring everything under the rule of Christ.